An exceptionally small number of senators appeared at the Grodno Seym, among whom there were only three bishops: Józef Kossakowski, Ignacy Massalski and Wojciech Skarszewski. Their participation in the deliberations was ...

Guillaume Dubois was one of the most important French politicians of the Regency period (1715–1723). Just like his great predecessors of the 17th century – Armand de Richelieu and Jules Mazarin – he became both a cardinal ...

The article is devoted to the analysis of the careers of three personages from different strata of the nobility in Lesser Poland, who began their careers with activities for the Republic of Poland, and then devoted themselves ...

The article presents the rich foundation activity of Jakub Bieda Chrostkowic (d. 1630), a mansionary (lower rank chaplain), then a parish priest and dean of Małogoszcz. In the years 1591–1624, this clergyman built as many ...

John Calvin’s concepts pertaining to the relationship between the Church and the State are closely linked to his ecclesiology. Prior to his arrival in Geneva in 1536 and commencing reformatory activities there, Calvin ...

During the Cold War, NATO and the Warsaw Pact faced each other as two hostile political and military blocs with vast arsenals of conventional weapons and weapons of mass destruction. Their mutual distrust has kept the world ...

Poles in their history many times pinned their hopes on war – for instance after losing the independence at the end of 18th century. Similar public mood occurred after World War II. It was expressed by widespread rumors ...

During World War II, there were manifestations of anti-Semitism in the Polish Armed Forces in Great Britain. This phenomenon posed a very serious threat to the image of Poland in the international arena, in particular in ...

In the first years of World War II thousands of Poles had been deported to the USSR, and they regained their freedom in the second half of 1941. Many of them joined the Polish Armed Forces in the USSR, commanded by General ...

Italian fascism was formally born after the end of World War I. In fact, it grew out of a sense of the hurt and injustice of the 1919 peace treaty at Versailles. Benito Mussolini, using previously revealed philosophical ...